The New Testament
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The Empire of Rome
The great kingdom of Rome began as a small settlement in Italy, founded in 753 B.C. Rome grew into prominence as a result of its various alliances with other neighboring communities. Such alliances had been achieved either by mutual consent, or by means of Rome conquering them and afterwards demanding a kind of peace treaty between them. For a period of five hundred years Rome continually warred against her neighbors. As a result, these neighboring communities eventually became absorbed into the Roman kingdom. After the Carthage empire, perhaps the greatest contender of Rome, had fallen under the Roman fist, the growth of the Roman kingdom began to sprout up with even greater speed. Soon the geographical areas of Spain, North Africa, Macedonia, Corinth, and Pergammum became a part of Rome. In 63 B.C. Pompey had gained Syria as a province, and Judea had finally been annexed for Rome as well. This newly formed Roman empire continually faced great threats of civil disturbance within, as various of her leaders fought against each other to gain exclusive control over the empire's military power. Eventually, the supposed shared power of the Roman senate gave way to the enthroning of the first Roman emperor, Augustus.The Roman people were tired of war and Augustus promised a cessation from war and a life of peace and prosperity. Although the senate remained as a legislative body, Augustus was given the title, commander-in-chief of the armed forces in 27 B.C. Augustus truly sought to deliver what he had promised to the Roman people. Through his efforts many temples had been rebuilt in an effort to revive faith and religious worship throughout the land. He had hoped that through such efforts, the morale of people throughout the state would certainly improve. New laws encouraging marriage and home life followed. As a result, the overall morale did improve. A new religion began to be introduced throughout the land. That new worship was the worship of Rome itself, known more commonly as the imperial cult. Some of her patriots even worshipped the emperor as Dominus et Deus (Lord and God). To his credit, Augustus never demanded such worship, but this religion did begin to set the stage for other wicked emperors who would eventually begin to demand such worship in the years to follow.
Tiberius, the adopted son of Augustus, had succeeded his father in A.D. 14. Although he has been described as being impartial and very wise in his policies of government, the Roman people never really accepted him as they did his father. For the most part he had been feared by the people of Rome because they could sense a certain bitterness in his countenance. Due to substantiated threats of conspiracy by others in positions of power, Tiberius became exceedingly suspicious and cruel. His paranoid behavior would send chills throughout every member of the senate in his later days.
Upon the death of Tiberius (A.D. 37), the Roman senate had appointed Gaius Caligula as emperor. The people of Rome thought well of Caligula in the beginning because he seemed to be interested in their morale and well being. He did such things as lower taxes and finance various types of public entertainment, and he even demonstrated a certain degree of mercy by pardoning political prisoners. His character and personality seemed a lovely difference in contrast to that of Tiberius before him, but that image of the pleasing lamb slowly began to take the form of a dragon. He began to demand that he himself be worshipped as a god. This caused a certain alienation among the Jews who absolutely refused to bow down to him. When Herod Agrippa demanded that the Jews worship the image of Gaius they appealed to the emperor, but he responded by ordering the Syrian legate to erect a statue of himself in the temple at Jerusalem. He was a reckless waster of everything that his two predecessors had built before him. Over just a few short years, his behavior began to increase in cruelty and violence. His tyranny eventually became so unbearable that eventually he was assassinated by a tribune of the imperial guards. The total reign of Caligula was four years.
In A.D. 54 Nero had appeared on the scene. He caused much persecution against the Christian Church by blaming them for starting a great fire in Rome which he himself had probably started to make room for his golden palace. This persecution was the first of its kind directed against Christianity by the Roman state. It was during this persecution that both Peter and Paul were martyred.
Domitian brought another period of persecution against the Christian Church beginning around A.D. 81. He began to rebuild the temples of ancient Rome and became increasingly intolerant of foreign religions, especially the Christian Church. It was Domitian who demanded that he be worshipped as a God, and many Christians were executed for refusing to offer up sacrifice to his image, including his own nephew, Flavius Clemens.
There were basically two kinds of provinces under Roman control. One group was considered to be loyal to Rome and was set under proconsuls directly responsible to the Roman Senate. The other group was considered as potentially hostile to Rome and it was felt that only the presence of military troops could effectively keep the peace. For this reason these provinces were put directly under the authority of the emperor, the commander and chief over the military forces. Although the Christians did come under persecution in the latter days as already indicated above, generally the Roman government did their best to allow for religious freedom.
The imperial cult was a religion in and of itself. Their god was Rome itself, and their priesthood consisted of members of the provincial council. These men were regarded as loyal leaders of the local province because it was thought that they were continually looking out for the best interests of the Roman government. As might be expected, the many provinces that made up the Roman empire had to pay a certain amount of tribute tax to Rome. The tax continued to increase because the local governors would continually levy greater and greater demands upon the provinces to satisfy their own excessive lifestyles. Those who were not citizens of Rome continued to be exploited to an even greater extent, which ultimately resulted in an increased poverty and a general disgust for Roman rule.
With the rise of Alexander the Great in Macedonia (337 B.C.), the Greek culture began to spread throughout the world. After subduing Syria and Egypt, Alexander began to advance his kingdom into Babylon, Persia, Susa, and Persepolis. After quickly conquering much of the world, he turned his attention to educating the Persian world to the Greek language and literature. He also managed to bring a Greek influence into the land of India. Even though his kingdom was divided shortly after his death, the Greek influence and language continued to flourish throughout the world.
Alexander's kingdom was divided between his four generals. Ptolemy took Egypt and southern Syria; Antigonus possessed the northern territory of Syria and the western parts of Babylonia; Lysimachus kept control of Thrace; and Cassander ruled over Macedonia and Ipsus. Shortly thereafter (301 B.C.) Seleucus I had managed to gain possession of both the kingdoms of Syria and Thrace, becoming Daniel's familiar "king of the North." There was continual strife between this king of the North and the Ptolemies of the South (Egypt). The Syrian kingdom is important because it is from Syria that we have the rise of Antiochus III and Antiochus Epiphanes, the attempted Hellinization of Palestine, and the Maccabean revolt.
Egypt under the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.) is also very important because it is during this time that the Old Testament was translated into the Greek language giving us the Septuagint. The Ptolemies sought to establish a great library with the purpose of preserving the real treasures of ancient literature. It was because of this great endeavor that the command was given to translate the Hebrew scriptures into the Greek that they might become available to the common man. The Jews had previously been awarded a full citizenship in Alexandria by Alexander himself, and as a result, there had been a great number of Jewish colonists. Those Jews had for the most part lost their Hebrew tongue and were glad to have the scriptures translated into the Greek language. The existence of the Septuagint began to prepare the way for the spread of Christianity that was to come in the future.
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The Jewish State
In the days of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the nation of Judah went into Exile for a period of seventy years (587 B.C.). It was during the first deportation under Jehoiachin, that Ezekiel had been carried away into Babylon. It is believed that a new Judaism began to emerge under the strong prophetic ministry and leadership of Ezekiel while in Babylon. Eventually the seventy years prophesied by the prophet Jeremiah had come to an end and Cyrus, king of Persia, captured Babylon and allowed the Jews to return back to their land to begin rebuilding the temple (539 B.C.). The process was slow at first, but years later God sent Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor to Judah to restore the broken land. It was during this era that the Aramaic language of Persia began to replace the ancient Hebrew language among the Jews. Under the ministry of Ezra, it is believed that much of the Old Testament had been compiled utilizing the great library of Old Testament writings preserved by Nehemiah. There was a great renewal of interest in the ancient sacred writings. The Aramaic language began to be used to help teach the people in a language common to them. The synagogue slowly became instrumental in teaching the local people the laws and writings of the prophets. The temple rituals were once again being administered by the priesthood in Jerusalem. Motivated by a fresh interest in the scriptures of the law, the Rabbi began writing the works which became the Talmud and the Midrash.In Alexandria, the high priest maintained the responsibility as the administrator of the law. The Jewish religion flourished under great freedom and the study of the law and its interpretation continued to blossom even more. Eleazar the high priest supplied Ptolemy Philadelphus with seventy-two elders, especially chosen to assure an accurate Greek translation of the Old Testament writings, which they are reported to have completed in just seventy-two days. This Septuagint translation was widely circulated throughout the Dispersion by the time of Christ and became the Bible of the early Christian Church.
Antiochus III attempted to Hellinize the Jews in Palestine, and they suffered great persecution under the cruel reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. Antiochus destroyed the walls of Jerusalem and sold many of the inhabitants into slavery. The temple was not only plundered of its treasures, but an image of Zeus was set up on its altar and a sow was sacrificed to Zeus. The death penalty had been inflicted upon any who were found to have possession of the Torah; the rite of circumcision and Sabbath observance were both forbidden and punishable by death. All this inspired an old priest by the name Mattathias to lead a revolt against the Syrian ruler. This revolt was known as the Maccabean revolt named after Judas, the son of Mattathias who succeeded his father, who was nicknamed Maccabeus (The Hammer). As a result of the revolution, Judas succeeded in defeating the Syrians, expelling them from Jerusalem, and cleansing the temple. A new altar had been erected and the temple was rededicated. The Jews annually remember this event with the feast day which they call Hanukkah or the Feast of Dedication (Feast of Lights).
Jonathan, brother of Judas Maccabeus, succeeded Judas at his death, and the war continued until Jonathan was succeeded by his brother Simon, also of the family of Maccabeus. In his day a treaty was made between him and Demetrius II of Syria. Simon was given political freedom from Syria and complete release from taxation. Simon was made high priest in Jerusalem and a treaty was also signed with Rome 139 B.C. in which Rome would recognize the independence of the Jewish state.
The peace between Jerusalem and Syria came to an end with the fall of Demetrius II. When Antiocus VII succeeded his brother Demetrius, he demanded that the Jews once again pay a heavy tribute to Syria. Simon's sons were again able to break the Syrian yoke, however, shortly thereafter Simon and his two sons had been murdered by Ptolemy, his son in law. The surviving son of Simon, John Hyrcanus gained control over Jerusalem. Although Syria regained control over Jerusalem afterward, an internal civil war enabled Hyrcanus to regain control and he was afterwards declared to be the high priest and head of the Jewish state. Hyrcanus became the founder of the Hasmonean dynasty.
Some years after, due to internal chaos within the Jewish state, Rome saw the necessity to get involved. As such, they appointed Hyrcanus II as the recognized head over the Jewish nation. Antipator, the minister of Hyrcanus was granted Roman citizenship, and his two sons were appointed as perfect over Jerusalem (Phasael) and perfect over Galilee (Herod). Phasael and Hyrcanus were captured during an attack by the Parthians. Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus II, having the support of the Sadducean party and the Parthians, marched against Herod to claim himself as king but he was viewed as the enemy of Rome and was defeated by the Roman general Sosius in 37 B.C. Antigonus was then beheaded, and Herod became recognized by Rome as the king of the Jews. As king Herod had the right to appoint the high priest, although due to his Idumean blood he was unable to appoint himself. He appointed and deposed several men to this position during his reign. He brought much prosperity to the land of Palestine in his day and constructed a new temple although the Jews never trusted him. It is the Herod, called Herod the Great, who brutally massacred the children at Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1-18 KJV). Herod died on April 1, 4 B.C.
After Herod died, Augustus confirmed Herod's will by giving Archelaus the title of ethnarch over Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; Antipas became the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea; and Philip was made the tetrarch of Batanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. Nine years after his reign, the Jewish and Samaritan rulers despised Archelaus, and by their joint appeal to Augustus, Archelaus was afterwards deposed. Philip was considered an exception to the Herods, as he was perceived by the people as being fair and just. Sometime after his death, Philip's kingdom had been awarded to his nephew, Agrippa I (A.D. 37). Antipas is the same Herod who murdered John the Baptist and who tried Jesus.
Agrippa I had a strong influence in Rome, and being sympathetic to the Jewish community, had successfully prevented Caligula from erecting the image of himself inside the temple at Jerusalem. Being a worshipper of Judaism, he was also one of the first persecutors of Christianity. He executed James and had Peter imprisoned (Acts 12:11-19). After being avowed a god by his flatterers, he died shortly thereafter being stricken by a severe intestinal disease. Agrippa II, son of Agrippa I, was given the kingdom in A.D. 50, along with the right to appoint the high priest.
Throughout the many changes of foreign rulership over the Jewish people, the main controlling power over the Jewish people was undoubtedly the priesthood. From the time of Moses the final word rested with the high priest because he alone was regarded as the spokesman for God. After the exile, the temple was again reestablished, and the priesthood once again regained their political power over the Jewish people. The office of high priest was usually awarded by hereditary right, the position being retained for life. Along with the high priest was a ruling council of elders consisting of the more prominent scribes, priests, wealthy businessman, and landowners. This council was later called, the Sanhedrin.
During the Ptolemaic period, the priesthood remained politically powerful, but the position of the high priest would be awarded by the political overlord. The office became one subservient to the state. Power returned to the priesthood during the Maccabean revolt as John Hyrcanus secured the position, forming the beginning of the Hasmonean dynasty. During the reign of Herod, the office of the priesthood was once again appointed at times by the political overlord. The high priest remained politically powerful possessing great influence, often acting as adviser to the Roman procurator. Rome acknowledged that the high priest continued to hold great power over public opinion, being able to sway them to the one side or the other.
After the death of Herod the Great, Rome began to take a more direct control over the rule of the people of Judea. With Herod's death came the appointment of Archelaus. Wanting to be set free of his cruel reign, the people gladly welcomed the intervention of Rome to depose Archelaus from his throne. As a result of their plea to Caesar, their independence from Rome decreased. Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26-36) began his career by making a serious mistake in Jerusalem. He insisted that troops be sent through Jerusalem carrying banners bearing the image of the emperor. After realizing that the Jews would not bow down to Caesar, he cowardly backed down not wishing to spill unnecessary bloodshed. This might have had an impact upon his later decision to hand Christ over to be crucified.
Shortly after he had been displaced by Marcellus (A.D. 36) because of a dispute he had with the Samaritans, the emperor Caligula demanded that a statue be set up in the temple at Jerusalem that he might be worshipped as a god. Petronius, the legate of Syria, managed somehow to delay this order until Caligula had died (41 A.D.).
The Jewish Zealots continued to cause problems for the Roman rulers. Their leaders often incited the people, calling for an all out holy war against Rome. In A.D. 66 a series of local uprising caused many Roman garrisons to suffer great casualties by these Zealot groups. The temple was set ablaze in 70 A.D. under the reign of Titus, and the massacre at Masada followed afterwards. In A.D. 135 the last effort of a Jewish hope of revolution was quenched and Jerusalem was made a Roman city. It was now illegal for a Jew to enter into the city of Jerusalem at the penalty of death. The temple of Jupiter was erected exactly where the Jewish temple had once stood.
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The Social World And The Economic World
Jewish SocietyIn Judaism, the people were for the most part ruled by an aristocratic religious group. The members consisted primarily of priests and prominent rabbis. From the time of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean family ruled over the Jewish people as priests and recognized rulers. They not only controlled all business connected with the temple, but also shared in any revenues derived from the direct sales of sacrificial animals and money exchanges in the temple. Such were the wealthy members of the Sanhedrin, the ruling council of Judaism.
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Pagan Society
The civil wars of Rome had resulted in many of the smaller landowners loosing their lands as they were unable to make a living working their smaller farms. The wealthier landowners were able to capitalize upon their increased poverty by obtaining valuable land at a fairly inexpensive price. Others began to grow wealthy due to their exploitation of newly conquered provinces. The lower classes were especially encompassed with great despair as there seemed no hope for advancement in spite of all their hard work. The middle class gradually began to become almost extinct. Slave labor put the middle class out of business as such slaves were often at least as educated and skilled as the middle class, often time even more. The plebs, who were the poorer class, had become increasingly numerous. They consisted of a large number of unemployed homeless people who for the most part were much worse off than the slaves. These unemployed were ready to follow any leader that might promise some hope to their seemingly hopeless situation. It has been suggested that less than half of the inhabitants of Rome were free men. Very few of these free men were citizens having full rights. As for the wealthier slave owners, they began to grow dependent upon their slave labor. The state of Rome became increasingly more hopeless.[ Go To Top]
Under the reign of Augustus came forth a revival in literature. The writings of Vergil imagined Rome as the glorious empire having the promise of a golden age yet to come. Both Greek and Roman mythology flourished, and in the latter part of the first century, Pliny the Elder wrote his Natural History, an encyclopedia consisting of vast amounts of information and research on various subjects. The Romans were skilled in building with brick and cement and built many bridges, aqueducts, theaters, and baths. Their art consisted primarily of representations of persons rather than abstract ideas. There was a great emphasis upon music as it relates to entertainment, which included instruments of all kinds. Roman theatrical presentations were poor, unlike that of the Greek culture, feeding man's mind with immoral and degenerate thoughts, rather than that which might otherwise serve to stimulate the thoughts of intellectuals or philosophers. The amphitheater was often used by the emperor or other political aspirants to gain public favor. The crowds cheered on to see the shedding of blood, whether it be the blood of man or beast. Often criminals condemned to death would supply the local entertainment.There were four primary languages used throughout the Roman world. Latin was the language used within the courts of law and the primary language of Roman literature. Greek was the common language of the educated, especially from Rome eastward. Greek was predominate even in Palestine and was most likely used by Jesus and the disciples whenever speaking to Gentiles. Aramaic was the language most prominent throughout the Near East. Hebrew was considered a dead language used only by learned rabbis. As for the New Testament, it has been said that some of the words of Jesus were probably originally composed in the Aramaic language, but all of the writings have survived only in their Greek forms.
The Romans were not at all concerned with mathematics or the sciences. Most of what they possessed had been invented and acquired by the Greeks. The sciences had for the most part been studied and explored by older civilizations such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, etc. Knowledge of Geography had flourished during those days through the efforts of Ptolemy of Alexandria. Knowledge of medicine also increased being founded primarily by the Greeks. Pliny's encyclopedia as mentioned already, contained information about just about every subject known to man from agriculture to zoology. Neither the Hebrews, nor those of the early church were much concerned with the sciences of man.
Education of the children was not made available by Rome. Such was left up to the individual family and depended upon their financial ability. Generally, the education was left up to the Greek household slaves. The Roman child was assigned a tutor for the better part of his life. The tutor would instruct the child in the basic things he needed to know, and the tutor would also take the child to one of the schools where he might be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. As the child advanced he would study the Latin and Greek poets.
The education of the Hebrew child had revolved around the readings of the Old Testament, both Hebrew and Greek. He learned also of the traditions and ritual of Judaism. He was not usually encouraged to read Gentile literature except on occasion. If he aspired to become a rabbi, he would be sent to study with a rabbi of great reputation who would instruct them according to the strict law of the fathers. Although education was left up to the local communities and families, it appears that a basic literacy was common even among the poorest of people.
The moral standard in the days of the Roman empire might have been somewhat less than we enjoy today. Human life was considered cheap. One might abandon a child without feeling any remorse and divorce was easy to obtain and acceptable throughout the society. Politics was corrupt and fraud and deceit in business was common place. Religion for the most part had consisted often of mere myth and superstition.
The Roman empire occupied very fruitful farming lands during the time of Christ. Goods were produced primarily of human labor. Luxury goods such as gold, ivory, jewels, and furs were often imported. Although the empire had built many good roads, transportation of items was still slow and costly. This was primarily because all vehicles needed to be drawn by beasts of burden. Many of the cities throughout the empire minted their own coinage and the coins of conquered nations were never retired from circulation. As a result, one of the most thriving businesses was that of the money changer. Banking was accomplished primarily through negotiation. Rate of interest could vary from four to twelve percent with individual brokers often charging an additional amount. In spite of the excellent roads built by the Romans, the primary mode of commercial transportation was by water. There were many merchants around the Mediterranean Sea. The most important port was probably that of Alexandria, as it was the main outlet for the grain crop of Egypt.
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The Religious World
The Graeco-Roman PantheonDuring the infancy days of the Church, there was at least five primary religious beliefs competing for the souls and minds of mankind. The primitive religion of Rome focused upon the gods associated with the forces of nature. The Greek influence had penetrated the Roman civilization so much so that these Greek gods became assimilated to their Roman counterparts, although they kept their Roman names. Chief among these gods was Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), Neptune (Poseidon), and Pluto (Hades). There was a short increase in the worship of these gods during the infancy days of Christ, and especially in the days immediately preceding his birth, because Augustus had new temples and priesthoods founded throughout Rome. By the time Christ began his ministry however, the emphasis upon these gods had begun to decline. For many of the more educated, the belief in the ancient gods was looked upon as a major corrupting force among the youths. This was primarily because of the evil moral habits and examples of these gods.
The new religion in Rome was a worship of the state of Rome itself. This imperial cult had arisen gradually as men began to suppose that the emperor had some kind of divine or superhuman power. Such teachings were echoed throughout the empire in hopes of establishing an even greater allegiance to the Roman emperor. It was not until the reign of Domitian, (86-96 A.D.) that an emperor had actually demanded his subjects to worship him as a god. The Christian Church had naturally refused to comply with this demand by the emperor, and as such, this lead to the violent persecution of Christians everywhere.
People then as now, were often disillusioned or dissatisfied with such an impersonal religion as that of the worship of the state or local gods. If there was a divine being, then why couldn't a person establish a greater and more personal relationship with that god? The mystery religions had promised such a contact with deity. Whether the mystery religion was that of ancient Greece, Asia, Persia, or Egypt; even despite their individual differences, they also shared common elements of a god who had died and had later been resuscitated. Within these mystery religions it mattered little whether a man was rich or poor, slave or free. Each man was placed upon the same equal footing, and each became a member of a common brotherhood. Through the practice of certain secret rituals, each candidate possessed a certain promise of immortality.
The worship of the occult was somewhat similar to that of the mystery religions, except the goal was not only for immortality and a personal relationship with deity, but a desire for supernatural power. It was taught that the entire world was inhabited by good spirits and evil spirits, both of which could be called upon to perform certain acts of power. The secrets lie in the knowledge of the correct rituals, formulas, and incantations. The secrets of magic, sorcery, and witchcraft were sought and practiced by both Jew and Gentile. Such use of magic had enabled powers such as: augury, divination, necromancy, exorcism, etc.
[ Go To Top] According to the teaching of Plato, the physical world was merely an imperfect copy of a spiritual world which consisted of divine thoughts and ideas, thus giving us a dual concept of the world around us. The material world that we know is only a shadow of these spiritual things. The physical world is temporal and imperfect. As man acquires a greater knowledge and a more accurate concept of the images within the spirit realm, he will gradually and continually improve his world by striving to make it more and more like the perfect world of the spirit. The powers to accomplish such changes in this world do not come forth from imaginary angels, demons, or gods. Heaven is not a place, but merely an idea. The true heaven is the manifestation of the perfect, by bringing it to the material world through continual reflection and meditation of ideas. Man's salvation comes through the seeking of the highest good, that is to bring the perfect kingdom of God down to man. There is no other salvation for man, for he himself belongs to the material world.
Then there was the philosophy of the Gnostics. For the Gnostic, evil is the material or physical world. Salvation comes through the knowledge of the spirit world and denial of the material. The spirit world was an invisible world. Asceticism is essential for salvation, as one must renounce the physical body along with its lustful cravings, if that one would ever hope to obtain the greater spiritual illumination. The spirit man or essence is the real, while the physical man is unreal and temporal. Sin becomes really no issue, as sin is merely a normal act of the physical. Full gratification of the desires of the flesh merely meant that the progression of the spirit man would suffer more delay. Ultimately the spirit essence of that man will be saved regardless.
Neo-Platonism carries the duality of Plato and combining it with the Persian concept of the struggle between the two powers of light and darkness, with an overall conclusion that feelings must be joined to knowledge if a man is ever to truly establish a communication link with the divine essence of God. The spirit of man is essentially good and the physical of man is essentially evil. Although knowledge and reasoning are extremely important, man can never truly know God with his intellect alone. God must be felt and experienced as well as having knowledge of him. The spirit and material world are as different as night and day, or darkness and light. The two cannot become joined to each other as the two are considered to be incompatible. The concept of the incarnation of God into man becomes inconceivable, as well as the bodily resurrection of that man. Since the enemy is the physical world, death itself becomes man's ultimate salvation as it alone can free his spirit from a tie to this physical world.
The Epicureans taught that the world had somehow begun in a shower of atoms which by pure chance must have collided with others, eventually bringing about the formation of the material universe. There was no divine purpose nor design. There was no absolute truth or good. The highest good man might hope to obtain was pleasure, which was defined as merely the absence of pain. In essence, there was no God who created, therefore, there was no need for religion or outward expressions and forms of worship. While they did not deny the existence of the gods, these beings if they did indeed exist, would be completely uninterested with man. The gods were totally inaccessible to man. If it were possible for man to somehow make contact with the god, that god would not benefit man in any way, being occupied with his own life and concerns. There was no need for any preoccupation then with sin or guilt, for a man's life truly must have had no purpose. It began and ended out of pure chance. There was no life after death as such, only the here and now really mattered. What was important was that the man lived his life according to and for the purpose of his own pleasure.
Stoicism taught that the universe did indeed have a divine purpose and was controlled by Absolute Reason. The highest good for mankind to reach then was in his conformity to divine reason. The universe was as it was meant to be. There is no need to think about altering nature in any way, nature would take its own course. As for man, his personal ambitions should give way, to submit to what is best for all of mankind. The good of all mankind rather than self indulgence should be dictated by reason alone. As for God, he cannot be touched by man personally for God must surely be impersonal. As impersonal as nature was, so therefore was God himself. The idea of God sending his own son to redeem man to himself seemed absurd.
Cynicism taught that the highest virtue which man could obtain would be the ability to abandon all fleshly wants and desires. The only way to be set free of the slavery of desire was to abandon desire completely. The cynic sought to be an individual which meant becoming an unconformist. They sought to abandon all standards and conventions. Life was not to have anything to do with rules or norms originating from the outside of that man. The cynic needed nobody or nothing, especially a savior. He had to give account to no man, and he would owe no man nothing.
Skepticism taught that personal knowledge was the result of personal experience in one form or another. As such, there was no absolute truth or standard by which one man should be judged against another. What was commonly acceptable or customary in one place of the world was otherwise unacceptable in others. Life was therefore not a matter of conformity to a set of rules made up by a given culture. Life was experience itself. Experience was neither positive nor negative, it simply was there to experience. The skeptic didn't need to be saved for there was nothing to be saved from.
In the first century, Judaism stood as a national monotheistic religion that forbid the worship of any other god. Judaism consisted primarily of those who had been Jewish by descent, but also included hundreds of Gentile proselytes. The foundation of Judaism lay upon the law of Moses and the sacred writings of the prophets who followed. The Judaism that existed in the days of Christ was somewhat different from that which Moses had instituted. After the temple had been destroyed and the Jews were taken into captivity to Babylon, survival of Judaism would only be possible through the development of a system of Jewish worship independent upon the priesthood and ritualistic sacrifice. As a result then of the exile, the focus of Judaism turned from the altar and ritual to the study and worship of the sacred writings. These sacred writings were able to go with them into captivity.
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Theology of JudaismAccording to Judaism, man was created by God. Man was given the ability of thought and reason, as well as the ability to choose to worship or not to worship and obey his creator. His purpose was that of all other creation, to obey the commandments of God. For the Jew there was no difference between moral law and ceremonial law. Both were equally the commandments of God. To break one small part of the law caused one to be guilty of breaking the entire law. The sin of one member could result in a curse upon the entire nation. The reward for keeping the law of God would be demonstrated in national blessings. The religion began to get more personal during the Babylonian exile. As men began to meet for the purpose of study and knowledge of the sacred writings, knowledge of his own sinfulness began to rise up within. He could no longer merely blame the captivity upon the sins of his parents as now he could see the reality of his own sinfulness. Judaism began to focus upon personal responsibility and the judgment to come. This lead to questions regarding the blessed reward for faithful service and the looking forward to immortality as a result of faithfulness.
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The TempleThere have been three Jewish temples erected in Jerusalem. The first was that which Solomon had built which had been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.). The second was built after the exile and desecrated and plundered by Antiochus Epiphanes (168 B.C.). The third is Herod's temple, which existed in Jesus day and was ultimately destroyed by the Romans (70 A.D.).
The temple had both an inner court and an outer court. There were no restrictions on access to the outer court which eventually became somewhat of a marketplace. The inner court contained the women's court on the East, the court of the Israelites on the West, and the court of the priests in the center. In the middle of the priestly court stood the sanctuary that was divided into two main portions, the Holy and Most Holy, being similar to the tabernacle. The Most Holy Place was separated from the Holy place by a veil.
The new form of Judaism would include the synagogue worship. Such forms of worship were somewhat similar to that which we find in the small local Christian Church today. A synagogue could be formed wherever ten men could be found to become the pillars of that synagogue. Such synagogues were built in every city of the empire These consisted of both Jewish and foreign synagogues. Galilee for instance, flourished with synagogues that were largely Gentile. The emphasis would be upon the study and teaching of the law and other sacred writings, and this would be supplemented with songs of praise and prayer. It became the social center providing religious education and preservation of the religion of Judaism. In the synagogue, the rabbi replaced the priest as emphasis was no longer upon sacrifice and ritual, but rather upon teaching and instruction.
Each synagogue had its leader selected from among the elders by vote. The leader acted as an overseer of the service. Each synagogue also had a custodian who was responsible to care for the building. Often this custodian was also the master over the synagogue school.
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The Sacred YearThe Jewish year consisted of twelve lunar months, with the religious year beginning with the fourth month. A thirteenth or intercalate month was added to the calendar when it became necessary to equate the lunar year with the solar year. The year consisted of various holy days which began with the Passover on the 14th day of Nisan (April). The day after (15th) was known as the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks following the Passover was the Feast of Pentecost which was also the anniversary of the giving of the law on Sinai.
The civil year began on 1-2 Tishri (October) with the Feast of Trumpets also called Rosh Hashanah. During this entire day trumpets are blown in the temple from morning until evening. On the 10th day of Tishri was the day of Atonement in which the high priest would enter into the Holy of Holies to sprinkle the blood upon the mercy seat on behalf of all of Israel. On the 15-21 of Tishri, the Jews celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles. This holy day was meant to commemorate the wandering in the wilderness.
There were two new holidays added to the Jewish calendar after the exile. The first of these occurs on the 25th of Kislev (December) called the Feast of Lights (Dedication Hanukkah). The day commemorates the cleansing of the temple by Judas Maccabeus which had been desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes (164 B.C.). Finally on the 14th of Adar, the Jews celebrate the Feast of Purim. It is regarded as more of a national holiday to commemorate the victory recorded in the book of Esther.
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The Educational SystemAlong with the institution of the synagogue came forth the school for children. Education was not compulsory, but the community early on believed that each child should be taught how to read the Torah for himself, and be able to perform simple arithmetic. Simon ben Shatach (75 B.C.) is usually credited with the Jewish educational reform which established elementary school for all Jewish children. One marked difference between the Jewish schools then and what we find commonly today is that original thinking was strongly discouraged. There was very little emphasis upon knowledge of the natural world or scientific research. For the Jewish child the law was the common curriculum in the educational system. In advanced schools, studies in Latin and Greek were available, but many of the rabbis were often opposed to teaching the Jewish child the gentile languages.
[ Go To Top] No one can deny the strong influence that the Jewish Scriptures had upon the New Testament. For the Jew, the Torah was not only a national historic writing, it also contained the words of their God, being breathed by the Spirit of God himself through the agency of the prophet. Although the Old Testament closes with the writing of Malachi, other significant Jewish literature continued to flourish. The main books are known as the Apocrypha, which is a name meaning "hidden" or "secret". Among these 1 Maccabees is probably the most significant as it provides us with a history of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes around 168 B.C. Other writings of significance are found among the Pseudepigrapha such as: The Book of Enoch, The Assumption of Moses, The Book of Jubilees, and the Testimony of the Twelve Patriarchs. Some of these writings obviously had a great influence over the New Testament writers. Other significant writings are those which make up the Talmud, the standard of orthodox Judaism to this day.
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The Sects of JudaismJudaism consisted of various differing sects in the days of Christ. The most influential sect was that of the Pharisees. They were the Puritans of Judaism as their teachings called for a complete separation from the world with a strict obedience to the law. Their theology embraced the entire Old Testament as the inspired Word of God. They believed in such ideas as: angels, demons, miracles, and the resurrection. The sect of the Sadducees was another powerful group possessing great political power. They claimed to be the succession of the priesthood of Zadok. For the Sadducee, the Torah alone was the Word of God. They differed from the Pharisee in their teachings, adhering to a strict literal interpretation of the scriptures rather than the more allegorical method employed by the Pharisees. Little is known of the sect of the Essenes, except that they were made up of an ascetic brotherhood that abstained from both sex and marriage, submitted to group initiations, and practiced a communal type lifestyle. They were similar to the Pharisee in their beliefs of the supernatural and spirit world, as well as in their strict adherence to the demands of the law. Much of what we know about the Essenes is due to the great archeological discoveries of the well know Qumran caves, also called the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Zealots were not really a religious group as the three mentioned previously, but rather a political rebel faction continually seeking their independence from Rome. They modeled themselves after men such as Judas Maccabees, as well as other powerful Old Testament characters such as Elijah and Phinehas.
Most of the Jews did not live in the Holy land. These are called the Diaspora or the Dispersion. There were two great dispersions or scattering of the Jewish people throughout the ancient gentile empires before the days of Christ. The first of these was the dispersion of Israel, the northern kingdom (721 B.C.) under Assyria. The second dispersion being that of the southern kingdom of Judah by Babylon (597 B.C). One of the largest of these dispersed Jewish groups dwelled in Alexandria, having their own governor and numbering approximately two million Jews. The Diaspora had mainly consisted of two groups. The Hebraists retained their faith in the Hebrew God and the scriptures, continuing to embrace the Aramaic and Hebrew languages and retaining their ancient Hebrew traditions. The Hellenists on the other hand, had almost ceased to be Jewish except in their continuance of their faith in the Hebrew God. They adopted Greek customs and preferred to use the Greek language. As might be naturally expected, a certain amount of Syncretistic elements began to creep into their religion.
Jewish
Background For The New Testament
The Nature of Judaism
Although Judaism would claim Moses as its founder, the religion that had existed in the time of Christ, primarily finds its roots in the Maccabean time period. It is during the Maccabean wars that the term Judaism is first discovered in any literature. The conviction of the faithful adherents of Judaism might best be summarized by the opening words of the tractate Aboth: "Moses received the Law from Sinai and commanded it to Joshua; and Joshua to the elders; and the elders to the Prophets; and the Prophets committed it to the men of the Great Synagogue." The Judaism of the days of Christ, consists of a mixture of the writings of the Old Testament, in addition to the writings found within the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the writings of Philo of Alexandria, and that which we have recorded within the writings of Flavius Josephus. In addition to this we also have a definite influence from both the Persian and Greek religions. This then becomes the foundation upon which Christianity is afterwards to be built upon.[ Go To Top]
Apocrypha and PseudepigraphaThe Apocrypha is considered separate from the Pseudepigrapha primarily because it was preserved as collection of writings together with the Alexandrian Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament). There is really nothing even remotely suggesting that the Apocrypha should be considered of any greater spiritual value than that of the Pseudepigrapha. Had these writings not have been collected and preserved in the Septuagint, they would have invariably been grouped or classed together with the other writings that make up the Pseudepigrapha. It is important to understand that the Pseudepigrapha is not a sacred collection, but merely a collection of Old Testament writings. The value of each must be considered individually, and can only truly be appraised and appreciated by the reader. None of these writings are considered to be canonical. The reader must approach each of these individually and with great caution.
Jubilees is meant to be somewhat of a commentary of Genesis. II Esdras is similar to that of Habakkuk or Daniel. The Twelve Patriarchs attempts to give a short summary of each of the twelve sons of Jacob. The four Maccabean writings attempt to give somewhat of a historical description of the times before, during, and after the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes. The Book of Enoch stands as an apocalyptic work quite unlike any other.
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The Dead Sea ScrollsThe Dead Sea Scrolls are the remains of the Qumran sect who believed themselves to be "the true and ideal Congregation of Israel." Among these finds are various copies of the canonical Old Testament books, including portions of every book except for Esther; copies of Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha; and other writings, some of which describe the communal life of the Qumran community.
The sect had a somewhat idealistic method of interpreting the scriptures known as pesher (interpretation). The interpreter would commonly re-interpret actual historic events in the light of current events. The sacred writings contained symbols of an internal struggle between light and darkness. Such symbols of the eternal struggle must apply not only to history but also to the present. Historical accuracy of the writings seems to be unnecessary as the true meaning and value of the sacred texts lie in their proper spiritual meaning or intent. Salvation was only possible through faith in the Teacher of Righteousness and the fulfillment of the law. Such salvation required a complete separation from the forces of darkness. The group would assemble together to worship by partaking of a covenant meal of bread and wine of which the priest would administer. The bread and wine offered was somehow associated with a belief in a special Melchizedek priesthood. There was a strong eschatological orientation among the members who had imagined themselves as warring along side of the holy angels against the kingdom of the evil one. There was also a great expectation of a promised prophet like Moses to come, as well as both a priestly and a lay messiah. True interpretation of the scripture would come forth from the Teacher of Righteousness. This office would be held by a succession of inspired leaders. There were four distinct ranks within the community: the priest, the Levite, the laymen, and finally the proselyte.The pesher method of interpreting the Old Testament is employed throughout the New Testament writings. As the Qumran sect looked for three messiahs, the New testament declares Jesus to be Prophet, Priest, and King. Where the Qumran community emphasized faith as a necessity for salvation coupled with strictness of the law, the New Testament emphasizes justification by faith alone, although James makes it clear that faithfulness to do righteousness must also follow the declaration of one's faith, otherwise such faith apparently has no power to save (Jas. 2:17 KJV). Baptism was practiced as a ritual of initiation in Christianity. The baptism of Qumran was a repeated ritual of cleansing. The communion meal of Christianity represented not only a covenant but also the body and blood of Christ, an idea foreign to the Qumran sect.
The Canon And Text Of The New TestamentThe New Testament Canon
The word "canon" literally means a "reed" which was used for measuring. Later it came to mean the standard by which things are to be measured by. The "canon of Plato" would consist of all works ascribed to Plato which are considered to be genuinely his. A study of the canon of Plato will reveal Plato's own thoughts. When it comes to the bible, there is no "definite canon" handed down to us for the New Testament. The canon that we do have might be called the "recognized canon" because it consists of the books generally recognized by the church. Many of the books that we find in our canon were questionable by some churches and even rejected by others. Some books that are not in our canon were received as inspired by various churches. The church does not determine whether a book should be in the canon, it can only recognize the book as such. There is no council of men that can say without question that one book is to be included and the other is to be rejected. The council can only give its recommendation based upon: (1) the intrinsic content as it relates to the person of Christ, (2) the moral content, and (3) the historic testimony of the early church leaders. The "recognized canon" that we have today is the same as we had in the fourth century. There have been no additions or subtractions. The books have seemingly proven themselves to be inspired over the years, and today they each stand upon their own merit. Although historical criticism still continues to challenge the books individually, the recognized canon continues to hold its own.
The books of the New Testament were collected over the years, being copied and handed down from one person to another. The Pauline writings were published as a group even before the first century. The four gospels were published as another group, Luke being deliberately separate from Acts, by the middle of the second century. The remaining books did not consist of a fixed group and can be found in no uniform sequence. Many of the originals would have been destroyed during the repeated periods of persecution of the Christian church. The copies that we do have contain many variations. This is partially due to some copies being done by persons lacking the necessary skill in writing to adequately do the job during times of persecution. Often times an attempt was made to correct an obviously fragmented copy. The results of this new copy would depend much upon the scribe's ability. Unfortunately there were other who had deliberately falsified copies by altering the text in one way or another. Such circumstances has created a great challenge for the church today.
Tenney, Merrill C. New Testament Survey Revised. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company Inter-Varsity Press, 1985.
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